Pan Africanism - 1731 Words

Pan-Africanism and the Organization of African Unity Pan Africanism Definition Pan-Africanism is a sociopolitical worldview, and philosophy, as well as a movement, which seeks to unify both native Africans and those of the African Diaspora, as part of a global African community. Pan Africanism represents the aggregation of the historical, cultural, spiritual, artistic, scientific and philosophical legacies of Africans from past times to the present. Pan Africanism as an ethical system, traces its origins from ancient times, and promotes values that are the product of the African civilization and struggles against slavery, racism, colonialism, and neo-colonialism. Pan-Africanism is usually seen as†¦show more content†¦The key aims of the first conference were: To bring into closer touch with one another the peoples of African descent throughout the world T o inaugurate plans to bring about a more friendly relationship between Caucasian and African races To start moving to securing all African races living in civilized counties with full rights to promote their business interests. The success of this early conference was limited but it did set the wheels in motion for greater debate. For the first time the various elements of anti-colonial and anti racial movements were brought to the forefront and discussed in the public light. Dubois led the 1st Pan-African congress, which took place in Paris 1919, to discuss racial discrimination against colored troops stationed in France after WW1. The next major landmark in the history of Pan Africanism was the 1945 Manchester Pan Africanism Conference. For the first time the congress did not ask for recognition or favors from European powers. They unequivocally demanded an end to colonialism in Africa, in addition to demands for social justice and rights. All schemes of half freedom were rejected. The Manchester Congress gave an impetuous to the goal of achieving national independence. The next conference was in Ghana, this was aShow MoreRelatedThe Pan Africanism For Beginners1823 Words   |  8 Pages The Pan-African movement as described in Lemelle’s Pan-Africanism for Beginners is a set of ideas and ideologies containing social and cultural, political and economic, material and spiritual aspects. Each aspect is accompanied by a plethora of historical figures and terms unique to the movement described thoroughly in the text and the presented glossary. The piece makes it easy to understand all the information acc ompanying each topic. While it does have its strengths and weaknesses, the bookRead MoreThe Pan Africanism For Beginners1829 Words   |  8 PagesThe Pan-African movement as described in Lemelle’s Pan-Africanism for Beginners is a set of ideas and ideologies containing social and cultural, political and economic, material and spiritual aspects. Each aspect is accompanied by a plethora of historical figures and terms unique to the movement, well described throughout the text and in the presented glossary. This book makes it easy to understand all the information accompanying each topic. While it does have its strengths and weaknesses, thisRead MoreThe s Theory Of Pan Africanism1347 Words   |  6 Pagesin the Black Nationalism and Pan-Africanism movements. Theories developed by Garvey inspired millions as he lectured about self-reliance and liberation of blacks to embark on the back-to-Africa movement. Achieving the goal of black liberation fueled the arguments presented b y Marcus Garvey. Garvey’s theory of Pan-Africanism proved to be a dominant force in the unification of the African community. Throughout this essay, I will respond to the notion of Pan-Africanism, Garvey’s Ideologies, and hisRead MorePan Africanism For Beginners Essay1481 Words   |  6 PagesSid Lemelle hoped for his book, Pan-Africanism for Beginners, to be a comprehensive guide to the complex concept of Pan-Africanism. Lemelle begins the book by broadly defining Pan-Africanism to mean the inclusion of â€Å"all people of African ancestry living in continental Africa and throughout the world.† This definition sets the foundation for his analysis of Pan-Africanism. Pan-Africanism for Beginners explores the major leaders and events associated with Pan-African sentiments chronologically. TheRead MorePan Africanism : The Black Social, Intellectual, And Political Realities1514 Words   |  7 PagesPan-Africanism Pan-Africanism signifies the difficulties of black social, intellectual, and political notions over a two hundred year span. What establishes Pan-Africanism, on the basic level, is the unity of Africans worldwide. Pan-Africanists believe that the African people in its entirety, which includes the Diaspora and the African continent, does not just share common beginnings but also a common destiny. (Asante, 1976, p. 97) This ideology of an intertwined past and future of all the AfricanRead MoreAfrican Americans And Its Impact On Society1589 Words   |  7 Pageswhite people to fit in and be considered as good but that didn’t work and people were stilled looked down upon. Pan-Africanism, the idea that peoples of African descent have common interests and should be unified. Historically, Pan-Africanism has often taken the shape of a political or cultural movement. There are many varieties of Pan-Africanism. In its narrowest political manifestation, Pan-Africanists envision a unified African nation where all people of the African diaspora can live. (African diasporaRead MoreThe Pan African Significance Of The Obama Administration3061 Words   |  13 PagesThe Pan-African significance of the Obama administration, Obama the offspring of a Kenyan engulfed in a bi-racial reality (thus rendering him sensitive to multiculturalism) who fulfills the dream of an oppressed people, has been the perceived unification of both the African continent and the diaspora. However, the term Pan-Africanism comes to stir strong feedback because there is no consensual agreement on what it is. W.E.B. DuBois, in the 1930s, defined Pan-Africanism as a movement aimed at anRead M oreCapitalism Is A System Of Economic Enterprise Based On Market Exchange1403 Words   |  6 Pagesnumerous ways. Dubois, Garvey and Rodney were the voices of the black movement around the world. For instance, W.E.B Dubois strongly believed that capitalism was the primary cause of racism. Dubois was a sociologist, historian, civil rights activist, and Pan-Africanist. He examined the geopolitical shifts in Europe, its colonies, as well as in the United States after the First World War in order to assess the interrelations of race and labor. Dubois strongly believed that labor was connected to salary andRead MoreUnited We Stand, Divided We Fall1196 Words   |  5 Pagesmilitary and defense strategy, and a unified foreign policy and diplomacy. Sharing the same continent and being divided economically and politically, will eventually becomes a problem amongst Africans. Although the delegates that attended the Third Pan-African Congress were idealists, for the first time, the men gained experience of working together as a unit. Nkrumah intends for the African people to collaborate and â€Å"unify our efforts, our skills, our resources, and intentions.† Nkrumah used bothRead MorePresident Nkrumah s The Fight Against Imperialism958 Words   |  4 Pages Kwame Ture’s ideologies were built heavily on top of the foundation laid down by Kwame Nkrumah. Kwame Ture generated knowledge within America about neocolonialism and worked passionately to achieve African liberation. Ture is credited with Pan Africanism and the Black Power movement in the Americas. Black Power according to Ture is a part of the world’s rebellion of the â€Å"oppressed from the oppressor, the exploiter from the exploited†. Black Power was also a way for the African continent and all

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) Essay - 1627 Words

Several mental health disorders are brought on due to both psychological and biological problems. Many of these are anxiety or behavioral disorders. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is one of these disorders that is an issue in both anxiety and behavioral issues. Its causes may be psychological, biological, or, in most cases, both. Many studies have been conducted on OCD and show that it is a complex disorder with many different symptoms. There have been treatments and medications to help reduce the symptoms and help people to overcome the disorder. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder is an anxiety disorder that causes a great deal of stress to people suffering from it, however with proper treatment it’s sufferers can live a healthy,†¦show more content†¦Many times these subsets can combine, causing additional stress and anxiety to the sufferer. The causes for Obsessive Compulsive Disorder are by problems in neuroanatomy and neurochemistry (Stein, 2002). Recent studies involving brain imaging have shown that abnormalities are found in patients with OCD (Stein, 2002). These abnormalities include â€Å"decreased volume or increased grey matter in cortico-striatal-thalamic-cortical circuits† (Stein, 2002). The frontal orbito-striatal area and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex have been shown to the inhibition of planning, organization, and verification, leading researchers to believe that these regions of the brain play a part in obsessive compulsive disorder (Abramowitz, Taylor, McKay, 2009). It is also shown that the serotonin system may cause OCD (Stein, 2002). This was first realized after an antidepressant called clomipramine, which is a serotonin reuptake inhibitor, was found effective in treatments of the disorder (Stein, 2002). Hypersensitivity of the postsynaptic serotonin receptor is associated with obs essiveShow MoreRelatedObsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)1756 Words   |  8 Pages Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a disorder that can affect children and adults. In order to fully understand OCD, many different areas of the disorder must be reviewed. First, OCD will be defined and the diagnosis criteria will be discussed. Secondly the prevalence of the disorder will be considered. The different symptoms, behaviors and means of treatment are also important aspects that will be discussed in order to develop a clearer understanding of the implications of obsessive compulsiveRead MoreEssay on Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)875 Words   |  4 Pagessevere Obsessive Compulsive Disorder. Obsessive-compulsive disorder is an anxiety disorder that triggers people to have unwanted fixations and to repeat certain activities again and again. Everyone has habits or certain ways of doing something with Obsessive Compulsive Disorder these habits severely interrupt the way they li ve their lives (Familydoctor.org Editorial Staff). About one in 40 people suffer from some form of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (ABRAMOWITZ). Obsessive Compulsive Disorder oftenRead MoreLiving With Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)1190 Words   |  5 Pagesdifferences between both symptoms and experiences of six different authors who have been personally affected by obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).   Since OCD is not very well understood by many members of the public (Escape), I hope that the experiences of the authors that I researched will be able to paint a vivid picture of what life with OCD is like. Obsessive-compulsive disorder involves a chemical imbalance in the brain. This chemical imbalance is thought to be the main reason for obsessionsRead MoreObsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) Essay2901 Words   |  12 Pages   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, or OCD, affects an average 1.7% of the population according to the Stanford University School of Medicine.  Ã‚  The recognition of this psychological disorder has grown in the recent years.  Ã‚  As the knowledge of this disorder becomes more prevalent, those suffering have become more willing to seek help (OCDA).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  OCD is a condition â€Å"in which people experience repetitive and upsetting thoughts and/or behaviors† (OCDA).  Ã‚  While there are many variationRead MoreObsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) Essay800 Words   |  4 Pages Obsessive Compulsive Disorder And Its Effect On Life Obsessive-compulsive disorder, or OCD, involves anxious thoughts or rituals one feels and cant control. . For many years, OCD was thought to be rare. The actual number of people with OCD was hidden, because people would hide their problem to avoid embarrassment. Some recent studies show that as many as 3 million Americans ages 18 to 54 may have OCD at any one time. This is about 2.3% of the people in this age group. It strikes men and women inRead More Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) Essays2616 Words   |  11 Pagesis a very powerful piece of structure; it is truly limitless when speaking about its potential. With a functional organ comes a dysfunctional possibility. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, (OCD), for instance, is nervousness in the mind. OCD is an anxiety disorder caused by repetitive intrusive thoughts and behaviors. It is a mental disorder marked by the involvement of a devotion to an idea or routine. Essentially, it is a false core belief which is believing that there is something wrong, causingRead MoreEssay on Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)3370 Words   |  14 Pages Obsessive compulsive disorder is a disease that many people know of, but few people know about. Many people associate repeated washing of hands, or flicking of switches, and even cleanliness with Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD), however there are many more symptoms, and there are also explanations for those symptoms. In this paper, I will describe what obsessive compulsive disorder is, explain some of the effects of it, and explain why it happens. I will also attempt to prove that while medicationRead More Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) Essay1758 Words   |  8 PagesOCD: Whats in Control? Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is an anxiety disorder that is the fourth most common mental illness in the U.S. (8). OCD affects five million Americans, or one in five people (3). This is a serious mental disorder that causes people to think and act certain things repetitively in order to calm the anxiety produced by a certain fear. Unlike compulsive drinking or gambling, OCD compulsions do not give the person pleasure; rather, the rituals are performed to obtainRead MoreObsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) Essay examples1375 Words   |  6 PagesObsessive Compulsive Disorder â€Å"I know my hands are clean. I know that I have touched nothing dangerous. But†¦ I doubt my perception. Soon, if I do not wash, a mind numbing, searing anxiety will cripple me. A feeling of stickiness will begin to spread from the point of contamination and I will be lost in a place I do not want to go. So I wash until the feeling is gone, until the anxiety subsides. Then I feel defeated. So I do less and less, my world becomes smaller and smaller and more lonelyRead MoreEssay about Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)474 Words   |  2 Pages Obsessive Compulsive disorder (OCD) is a mental illness that effects nearly 5 million Americans, and half a million children. Its a disease that fills the brain with unwanted ideas, and worries. OCD is a diseases that effects the Cerebral frontal cortex. Unfortunately there is no cure for OCD. Obsessive compulsive disorder can start developing as early as age five. In most cases OCD controls your life. Through out the rest of this paper I hope to inform you on Obsessive compulsive Disorders

Clinical Neuropsychology Manual of Mental Disorders

Question: Describe about the Clinical Neuropsychology for Manual of Mental Disorders. Answer: 1. The current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) system for diagnosing psychiatric illness fail to diagnose disease in a therapeutic manner and the results are suboptimal. Since the past few decades categorical approach to psychiatric disorder has been followed. With this approach, mental disorders are classified according to its typical symptoms and characteristics. The categorical approach utilizes DSM as well as ICD (International Classification of Disease) tool. DSM gives detail on specific terms of disorder and ICD aids in identifying symptoms of disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).The Categorical approach deals with the problem of disease sensitivity and comorbidity by diagnosing mental disorder from typical symptoms during mental health assessment. This process is based on the assumption that different pattern of thoughts and behavior can be organized into different categories of mental disorder. Thus, its sensitivity lies in organizing discrete illness and producing the diagnosis in similar situation. Despite these strengths, this approach has low inter reliability, lots of problem due to overlapping of symptoms. This makes the diagnosis difficult (Ragland Solomon, 2016). Due to this problem, clinicians have shifted to combining dimensional approach with existing categorical approaches. With this approach, clinicians can quantify a characteristic of disease based on using numerical values in different scales during disease assessment. The benefits of this approach lies in the fact that that it not only helps in identifying the presence of particular disorder but also aids in evaluating the degree of the condition a patient is suffering from (Shedler Westen, 2014). A clinicians can evaluate this by the question how much? to determine the level of severity of the disorder. Thus, in addition to categorical approach, it also takes into account various factors to get access to detailed information on each symptom. Instead of just labeling a disease, dimensional approach facilitates creation of a disease profile for specific patients. However, in relation to disease sensitivity and comorbidity analysis, much more time is consumed in getting each score. Dim ensional approach aims to enhance diagnostic precision of psychiatric illness. Dimensional scale measurement will allow better conceptualization and assessment of etiology and psychiatric syndrome. Challenges in user acceptability may occur with this approach because of interpreting underlying mechanism of disease (Cuthbert Insel, 2013). 2. Autism spectrum disorder is a neurophysiological disorder that impairs social interaction, communication and cognitive development of affected person. Other diagnostic features are poor social development, reduced interest and repetitive behavior. This disease may be caused by genetic or hormonal factors. According to mind blindness theory of autism, children with autism syndrome have delayed development of feelings and thought. Hence, a degree of mind blindness is present in affected person. They find it difficult to interpret others behavior and reduced rate of joint attention. Just et al., (2013) has suggested that this inability to identify mental states of self and other individual occurs because of brain abnormality and it occurs due to weak connection between medial prefrontal region and the posterior superior temporal region. Thus minblindness theory highlighted the social impairment in patients with autistic spectrum but it did not described about non-social characteristi cs of autism. Another limitation is that this theory is not specific to autism only. Another advanced theory called the emphathising-systemising (E-S) theory explains the combination of both social and non-social characteristics are present in people with autism spectrum disorder. It states that neurological disorder occurs not just because of lower empathy (E), but also because of below-average psychological factor (systemizing-S). Thus, inconsistency between E and S determines whether a person has autism spectrum disorder or not. Sabet et al., (2015) suggest that autistic people have exaggerated form of connectivity in each hemisphere and decreased inter-hemispheric connectivity due to small corpus callosum. Thus, increased interconnectivity disorder is found in specific area of brain in individual with the illness. The E-S theory was further developed by the extreme male brain theory of autism (EMB) which states that females perform better in emphasizing activities and males perform better in systemizing activities. Wen Wen, (2014) demonstrated that 54% males have systemizing brain while 44% females have brain with empathy activity. People with autism have smaller brain regions like thalamus, prefrontal cortex and superior gyrus compared to normal males. Besides this, normally size of male brain is larger than females, but in people with autism condition have even more larger brain than males. Thus this theory is useful in explaining why increases number of males develops the diseases compared to females. 3. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a disorder of the brain associated with inattentiveness and hyperactivity that interferes with cognitive development of individuals. Inattention is related to difficulty in sustaining focus, hyperactivity relates to extreme restlessness and impulsivity makes the person socially intrusive without considering the potential harm of the action (DuPaul Stoner, 2014). Because of the possible symptoms seen in ADHD, many people think ADHD is a societal invention and caused by indiscipline in social life of people. It may be related to presence of distressing family life or environment, struggles in life or watching too much television. However, research suggests that ADHD is caused mainly due to genetic disorder along with interaction of environmental factors. Despite this, the social constructionist theory suggests that there is no clear pathophysiology of the condition. While evidence have suggested difference in brain structure betwee n ADHD and normal patients, the genetic viewpoint is that genetic is responsible for about 75% of ADHD cases in patient. There is great argument regarding the real medical diagnosis of ADHD. There is no set criterion to determine the disease; it is mainly dependent on behaviors like hyperactivity and impulsivity. This behavior depend is context dependent and have no real origin (Roskam et al., 2014). Lead exposure in children might be a factor that affects brain development in children. The social construct theory of ADHD also suggest that it is mainly caused by environmental factors such as living in enclosed spaces, increased stress and burden from family (Bunford et al., 2015). It is also a result of conformity to strict social behavior such as in classroom or due to attachment with video games and computer. This can be found in workplace too due to long sitting hours and too many tasks. Hence, there is a need to make right choices and strategies and just not indulge in following societies rule against ones own will. 4. Schizophrenia is a mental illness that has impact on how an individual behave, think and feel. Such person may face difficulty in assessing what is real and what is artificial. This chronic disease occurs due to structural changes in the grey and white matter of brain. Changes in the cortical region take place prior to the first manifestation of schizophrenia. Brain structure changes overtime with gradual ventricular enlargement and decrease in hemispheric volume. The superior temporal gyrus region of the brain which is involved in processing language is mainly affected and this lead to the development of symptoms of the disease. A study on people with schizophrenia has showed that mostly changes take place in the temporal and frontal lobe of brain and people with these changes later develop schizophrenia. Anomalies in brain structure are seen both in grey matter and white matter. The connection related to processing of language is disrupted and myelination in this region takes pl ace (Kong et al., 2012). Psychological changes take place prior to onset of symptoms of schizophrenia. This occurs due to changes in brain structure particularly prefrontal lobes of the brain. Prefrontal lobe is extremely responsive to environmental stress. This leads to the manifestation of psychological changes such as memory impairment, hallucinations, delusions, inattentiveness and many others (Kahn Keefe, 2013). After the manifestation of schizophrenia, neurological changes take place due to abnormal brain chemistry. Brain structure impairs in patients with schizophrenia and it is mainly associated with enlarged brain ventricle leading to decrease in brain tissue volume. The frontal lobe is the region which is associated with decision making and reasoning property in people, but in people with the condition, low function is seen in the frontal lobe (Hirjak et al., 2014). Psychological changes are associated with loss of emotional function reduced ability to express and plan things in life. People struggle in sustaining to activities (Frith, 2014). 5. Endophenotypes are the term used to classify behavioral symptoms on the basis of clear phenotypes and identification of possible genetic connection. It helps to different between symptoms for diseases like ADHD, Alzheimers and many others. In case of people with schizophrenia, the most visible symptoms is psychosis which is associated with personality changes, abnormal behavior and low level of social interaction. However the distinct phenotype of the illness is overload of stimuli and impaired memory. As these phenotypes have clear genetic connections too, that is why they have been identified as endophenotypes of schizophrenia. These phenotypes reflect the neurobiological mechanism of the disease that represents the most overt symptoms of schizophrenia. The genes involved in endophenotypic traits in schizophrenia include RELN, FABP7 and CHRNA7. They are linked to schizophrenia phenotype of prepulse inhibition. It is a phenomenon which weak prestimulus inhibits the reaction of in dividual to stronger stimulus. The criteria involve in assessment of endophenotypes of psychiatric disorder is that the endophenotype should be associated with specific illness; it should be heritable and present in individuals despites their clinical status. Other criterion is it should be separated from other symptoms of illness (Ross, Freedman, 2015). As psychiatric illness is mostly associated with multiple risk factors, one endophenotypes related to the mechanism of illness most frequently develops. In schizophrenia brain changes occurs throughout the life span. One endophenotype that is useful to detect the risk of schizophrenia is sensory gating which is a process of filtering out unnecessary stimuli from other environmental stimuli (Ripke et al., 2013). 6. Down syndrome and Alzheimers disease are inter-related as the both the disease have common genetic condition. Down syndrome is a genetic chromosome 21 disoredr which leads to physical disability, developmental problem, delay in intellectual development and other diseases. On the other hand, Alzheimers is a neurophysiologic disorder that leads to memory loss and serious intellectual disorder affecting daily life activities. There is a connection between the two disease and children with Down syndrome at more risk of Alzheimers disease when they grow up. People who suffer from Alzheimers are also more likely to develop dementia which is related to impairment of cognitive function such as reasoning and thinking ability. The link between the two diseases is the extra copy of chromosome 21. Chromosome 21 carries the APP genes which codes for APP (Amyloid precursor protein). In people with Down syndrome, excess amount of APP protein leads to development of beta-amyeloid plaques in brain . This interferes with normal functioning of brain and creates risk of Alzhemiers disease and dementia. About 50% of patients with Downs syndrome develop the brain plaques and eventually develop dementia due to Alzheimers disease by the time they reach the age of 70 years (Hartley et al., 2015). People with Down syndrome above 40 years develop numerous plaques and neurofibrillary tangles and there is maximum chance of pathophysiology of Alzheimers disease. These plaques contain beta-amyloid peptide from APP genes. In Down syndrome, over expression of APP takes place and amyloid-beta is major factor in the pathogenesis of Alzheimers disease. Amyloid-beta is neuronal in origin and localized in endosomes. People with Down syndrome also have increased oxidative stress compared to normal people (Elizabeth Head, 2012). 7. Neural development is the process that provides insight into the cellular and molecular mechanism involved in nervous system development. Neurotrophins are group of protein that facilitates the development and function of neurons. These protein molecules regulate cell division and overgrowth of neurite. The neurotrophins binds to particular tyrosine kinases receptor that induces dimerization and auto-phophorylation of receptors. It leads to the formation of a complex of receptor and neurotrophin which is endocytosed. This complex is then transported to the soma (Neural migration). In between the process, it initiates signal transduction cascade that inhibits the apoptosis of genes and thus neural cell survives eventually. Other examples of neurotrophin factors that promote survival of neuron include nerve growth factor (NGF), neurtrophin-3, fibroblast growth factor and many others (Park Poo, 2013). Another type of neurotrophin is the brain-derived neurotrophic factors that play an important role in synapse plasticity and development of brain. A recent study demonstrated its role in synapse formation and plasticity. Synapse formation is promoted by regulating the axon morphology and increasing the number of excitable synapse and inhibitory synapse. It also enhances the number of functional synapses by the facilitating the maturation of those cellular components that triggers the release of neurotransmitter. This long term modification will be crucial in providing synaptic plasticity to an individual (Harrington Ginty, 2013). Neurulation is the process of development of neural tube (embryos central nervous system) from the embryo. The human brain development initiates from the third week of gestation period and it progressed to differentiation of neural progenitor cells. Neurotrophic factors play a role in this development by acting against the apoptosis cascade. It target distinct neurons at synaptic connection and makes connection with target cells. These factors are present in embryo during gastrulation and neurulation process. Neurotrophin-3 is expressed in the neural tube and tyrosine kinase C (TrkC) is present in the neural plate. A neural tube differentiates TrkC gets localized in specific region of the tube. Thus neurotrophic factors and TrkC plays a role in early neural development (Davis, 2014). 8. Meiosis is a type of cell division that divides the chromosome number by half and enables sexual recombination in organisms. It produces four gamete cells and the number of orginal chromosome is restored back in the offspring. The diploid parent cell consists of two chromosome copies. It divides to form four haploid cells which have half the number of original chromosome. The first meiotic division is called meiosis I. The first stage in this case is the prophase I where the chromatin fibre condenses to form sister chromatids. It is then followed by condensation of chromosome into tetrad structure in the prophase I. This pair of chromosome exchanges their DNA by recombination process. During Metaphase I the chromosome pair aligns at the centre of the cell and the centriole moves towards the poles. The spindle fibre is formed which attaches to the chromosome. In the next stage which is the anaphase I, the spindle fibres pull each chromosome towards the poles. During Teleophase I th e chromosomes are arranged in nuclei and cytokinesis takes place which leads to formation of two separate daughter cells. This phase is followed by meiotic division of haploid cells called Meiosis II. In prophase II new set of spindle fibres are formed and they align the equatorial plate in Metaphase II. In the Anaphase II, sister chromatids are pulled apart and chromosomes are enclosed in nuclear membrane in telophase II. This is followed by cytokinesis and results in formation of four haploid daughter cells that develop into a sperm or egg cells (Wang et al., 2015). There are key steps in meiosis where there is chance of spontaneous mistakes. The genetic constitution is altered and the and unexpected crossing over leads to increased genetic variability in a population. The crossing over of sister chromatids occurs during metaphase I and random alignment of chromosomes gives rise different gene combination in the offspring. In rare cases, failure to separate homologous chromosomes lead over accumulation of chromosome in one cell and lack of chromosome in another cell. This process of non-disjunction of chromosomes leads to production of gametes with odd number of chromosomes. It may give rise to variety of syndromes like Kleinfelters syndrome, Turners syndrome, and other syndrome (Marchett et al., 2015). Mitosis is a multi-step process during which chromosome is divided into two daughter cells. The first phase is called karyokinesis where nuclear division takes place. It consist of five phases mainly prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. The second phase is called cytokinesis wherein cytoplasmic components separate into two daughter cells. Due to error in mitosis, two types of errors occur and it has benign or deadly consequences. Silent mutation can occur where no change in DNA sequence is found or missense mutation may occur when DNA sequence are changed. This type of mutations may lead massive disruption in cell cycle and formation of tumours. Chromsomal abnormalities may also take place when chromosomes fail to attach to spindle fibres and the daughter cell either has one extra or one missing copy of chromosome after division. It leads to disorders like Down syndrome, Alzheimer disease and may other condition (Yoshida et al., 2013). 9. Rett syndrome is a rare neurological disorder of the brain that mainly affects girls. Its clinical manifestation includes small hand and foot, decreases size of head called microcephaly, repetitive hand movements and many others. It occurs due to mutation in the X chromosome; however its clear pathophsyiology is not clear. Autisms spectrum disorder is group of developmental disorders that affects normal life activities. Due to the wide range of symptoms associated with autism, the common concept of autism spectrum disorder came up. It impairs social interaction, verbal and non-verbal communication skills, behavior and specific interest of a child. Great debate exists regarding whether Rett syndrome should be classified as autism spectrum disorder or not. I feel that it can be classified as autism spectrum disorder because there is overlap of symptoms between the two diseases. In order to better understand the two disease and the type of neuropathological development in both case, a study was done that measures the symptoms using autism behavior checklist (ABC) in group girls with Rett syndrome. This data was then compared with girls with severe mental retardation. In relation to motor ability and development level, Rett syndrome scored higher than sever autism due to sensory scales. The Rett syndrome originally came in the 4th edition of Diagnostic and Statistical manual of mental disorder (DSM-4). Other diseases in this group included Asperger syndrome and childhood disintegrative disorder. Rett syndrome can be classified as autism spectrum disorder because certain medical characteristic of the disease is same as symptoms for autism. DSM-5 is related to new disorder which is completely different from autism and called as social communication disorder. Acccording to this Rett syndrome may not come under DSM or autism spectrum disorder at all. This is because if symptoms of mental disorders like anxiety and depression is not present in Rett syndrome, then it will not be diagnosed under DSM diagnosis of mental illness. This change is related to new guidelines for mental disorder classification (Huguet et al., 2013). 10. On the other hand, dyscalculia is associated with difficulty in comprehension of numbers and facts in mathematics. It can occur in all age group of people. This mathematical disability may be caused by injury in the brain. It is caused by a difference in the function and structure of the region of brain involved with mathematics. Butterworth Kovas, (2013) suggest this inefficiency may occur due to lesser grey matter in brain cells or reduced brain activity in the region of the brain that processes mathematics such as the intra parietal sulcus region. A brain imaging study showed that in children with dyscaclculia, there is decreased activity in parietal and frontal lobe of the brain involved with mathematical cognition. Damge or injury to parietal lobe also leads to this condition. The similarity in the two diseases lies in the fact both are learning disability and associated with structural and functional changes in brain. Due to the symptoms, dyslexia is often confused with dy scalculia. While dyslexia is the most common type of learning disorder, dyscalculia impairs writing, reading and number interpretation in children too (Lander et al., 2013). Thus these all categoreiies of ADHD that is related to behavioral disorder that occurs due to overactivity and impulsivity. Reference American Psychiatric Association. (2013).Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5). American Psychiatric Pub. Bunford, N., Brandt, N. E., Golden, C., Dykstra, J. B., Suhr, J. A., Owens, J. S. (2015). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms mediate the association between deficits in executive functioning and social impairment in children.Journal of abnormal child psychology,43(1), 133-147. Butterworth, B., Kovas, Y. (2013). Understanding neurocognitive developmental disorders can improve education for all.Science,340(6130), 300-305. Cuthbert, B. N., Insel, T. R. (2013). 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