Hydraulic Fracking Essay Example for Free

Hydraulic Fracking Essay This paper explores the hydraulic fracturing process, exactly what it is, what the fracturing process does to the earth and the surrounding environment in addition, to the consequences. Hydraulic fracturing is fracturing of rock by pressurization. This process by which oil and natural gas can be forced from the earth. The hydraulic fracturing process takes millions of gallons of clean water, sand, chemicals and pumps them underground at high pressure to break apart rock to release gas and or oil. My research has led me to the discovery that there are as many proponents for fracking as that are those that oppose the process. One thing no-one can deny or easily hide is that once the damage is done and something has gone wrong, the evidence usually speaks volumes that this is not something we should be doing to our planet or its people. The diagram on page 3 outlines the process defined as fracking for an easier understanding of how invasive the process is to the environment. Hydraulic Fracking Research Paper and Why the process of Fracking is bad for our environment Hydraulic fracturing experimentation started in 1947 and it had its first commercially successful applications by 1949, so it has been around for a long time. In twenty-thirteen, it is estimated that well over sixty five percent of all new oil and gas wells worldwide are using the process of hydraulic fracturing. Hydraulic fracturing, has allowed the United States to tap into domestic sources of natural gas and oil that were previously not economical to extract from such as shale beds. This has created numerous economic benefits for communities and governments in a time of economic instability. Hydraulic fracturing Scientists are worried that the chemicals used in fracturing may pose a threat either underground or when waste fluids are handled they are sometimes spilled on the surface which can cause site contamination or find its way back to water clean water. The natural gas industry defends hydraulic fracturing, or fracking as safe and efficient. Thomas J. Pyle, president of the Institute for Energy Research, a pro-industry non-profit organization, claims fracking has been â€Å"a widely deployed as safe extraction technique,† dating back to 1949. What Mr. Pyle fails to explain is that until recently energy companies had used low-pressure methods to extract natural gas from fields closer to the surface than the current high-pressure technology that extracts more gas, by digging to deeper levels and it also uses significantly more water, sand and chemicals. There have been serious environmental impacts associated with the process which has raised public concern. At this point, a causal relationship has not been established but increasing attention opens the possibility that further government action could be imminent regarding the practice. According to Baumgartner and Jones’s Punctuated Equilibrium theory, policy processes are generally characterized by stability and incrementalism in the subsystem level of government, but occasionally if enough attention can be garnered toward an issue, then large scale change can occur. Thus far, policy regarding hydraulic fracturing has been incremental and mainly consists of agency rules and state regulations. However, it can be argued that if a definite relationship can be established between fracking activities and public health risks, then the likelihood of a major punctuation occurrence would increase and allow for significant policy change on a national level regarding this issue. The issue is being brought to the forefront due to the changes in the fracking process, the original method forced fluid down a vertical shaft to create fissures in the bedrock to release more gas or oil but this method limited extraction to directly under the well. Now, the current method forces fluid under extreme pressure down a vertical shaft with horizontal or directional sections that allows for extraction from a wider area within the formation. The pressure and fluid create fracture systems that allow the natural gas or oil to move more freely from rock pores to production wells that bring it to the surface. The fluid used is mainly composed of water (ninety percent), propping agents (such as sand account for nine percent) and chemicals (point five percent). The specific make-up and combination of chemicals is often considered confidential or a â€Å"trade secret† by many companies. The Democratic Congressional Committee on Energy and Commerce found that 750 different chemicals are used in fracking and range from harmless substances such as salt and citric acid to extremely toxic ones such as lead and benzene. Assertions have been made that the chemicals used may be contaminating water sources and causing air pollution however, confirming the pollution is a result of fracking has been difficult. The line is very light gray it has been difficult to prove the relationship which has contributed to allow the industry to operate with minimal regulations until recently. According to the American Petroleum Institute (API), fracking has produced 600 trillion cubic feet of natural gas and 7 billion barrels of oil and is projected to account for 70% of future natural gas development. Natural gas is considered by some to be a â€Å"bridge† fuel that will allow for the transition from petroleum to alternative fuels. Over its full cycle of production, distribution, and use, natural gas emits just over half as many greenhouse gas emissions as coal for equivalent energy output,† wrote the Worldwatch Institute. The promise of a significant domestic energy supply is extremely attractive as the nation strives to find a way toward energy independence. Fracking has also been touted as a job creator and economy stimulator. American Petroliem Institute (API) estimates that the development of the Marcellus fairway (which covers Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, and West Virginia) could generate 300,000 new jobs, over $6 billion in federal, state, and local tax revenue and nearly $25 billion in value added to the economy by 2020. In the northern part of South Texas Eagle Ford Shale, Exco Resources will acquire about 55,000 net acres in Zavala, Dimmit, La Salle and Frio counties. The properties contain 120 producing wells that had average net daily production of 6,100 barrels of oil equivalent during May. Chesapeake Energy Corp. plans to sell assets in the Eagle Ford and Haynesville shales to Dallas-based Exco Resources for $1 billion. According to the American Chemistry Council, fracking has decreased the price of natural gas which has resulted in more industrial companies choosing to keep their business in America. Investments from these companies could hit $16 billion and create 17,000 direct jobs and 400,000 indirect jobs. However, these economic benefits need to be balanced against potentially negative environmental impacts including water contamination and air pollution that could cause serious health concerns. Problems with Hydraulic Fracturing Fresh water is one of the most precious resources on earth and also a very scarce one. Fresh water makes up only 2. 5% of all the water on earth and of that, 1. 3% is surface water and 30. 1% is groundwater. The rest is in the form of ice and snow in either glaciers or ice caps, according to the United States Geological Survey. Water is necessary for life on earth, it is extremely critical that it be protected from harmful pollution. Allegations have been made that fracking has led to the contamination of both surface and groundwater sources. Groundwater consists of all water located below the surface. Fracking activities have been linked to ground water contamination in a variety of ways. Most fracking happens at about 8,000 feet below the surface depending on the geological makeup of the area, while most underground water aquifers are located about 1,000 feet below the surface. Fracking proponents argue that there is no way for the contaminants to migrate due to the significant space between the activity and the aquifer. However, the composition of the earth may be extremely porous, have natural fissures or fractures that would allow contaminants to migrate. Combine a porous formation with the extreme pressure used in the fracking process and the potential for migration increases. One particular worry is methane gas, which occurs naturally in the earth, and is released in concentrated amounts when the fracking process breaks apart the rock formations. According to a study done by the National Academy of Sciences, methane gas concentrations in drinking water wells increased with the proximity to the nearest gas well at levels that had the potential to be an explosion hazard, in comparison to dissolved methane samples in wells next to nonextraction sites. In Dimock, Pennsylania, the study found that some residents’ water wells that were in close proximity to where fracking activities were known to be happening had their wells explode or their water could be lit on fire due to concentrated levels of methane gas. In Texas, several cities and surrounding counties of Lubbuck, Weatherford, Beaumont and Ft Worth have complained of methane contamination in drinking water. Levels are confirmed up but the cause has not yet been determined. Another possible point of aquifer contamination is in the construction itself. Oftentimes, the shaft is drilled down through the aquifer on its way to the shale formations below. If the shaft is poorly constructed, there is potential for the fracking fluid to leak directly into the aquifer as it is going down or coming back up as flowback. Contamination to ground water can also come from the fracking wastewater that is brought back to the surface. Once it has been used, it can be disposed of in an injection well. Currently, this waste is considered â€Å"oil/gas waste† and not â€Å"hazardous waste† so it is not subject to the stricter disposal guidelines associated with the hazardous distinction which leaves the potential for hazardous chemicals to reach groundwater sources if the injection well is poorly constructed. Besides ground water contamination, fracking activities have been blamed for surface water pollution as well. Surface water consists of all fresh water on the surface of the earth usually in rivers, streams or lakes. Fracking creates millions of gallons of wastewater that is extracted back to the surface in the recovery of the oil and gas. Typically, the flowback is treated by waste water treatment plants and released back into surface waters but is only tested for tier 1 2 chemicals, not tier 3 which are volatile chemicals. If they cannot dispose of it in this manner, some companies will utilize large â€Å"containment ponds† which are lined and used to hold the wastewater while it evaporates. Recently in Texas fracking operations have been blamed on recent increase in air pollution, perhaps these containment ponds are the issue. The liners are typically plastic and sometimes crack or get damaged which allows the contaminated fluids to leach into ground or surface water. Another potential danger comes from plugged wells. During the fracking process, large amounts of pressure is used and if the cement plug used to close the well is not sealed properly, there is a risk of it exploding and spewing the fracking chemicals into nearby surface water. In some areas, naturally occurring radioactive elements, such as radium, have been found in concentrated levels in local waterways due to fracking activities. In addition to water contamination, there have been serious allegations of air pollution caused by fracking activities. Natural gas fracking extraction emits greenhouse gases, smog-inducing compounds and potential carcinogens causing health and environmental concerns. Increased levels of methanol, formaldehyde, carbon disulfide, and benzene have been found near fracking sites. These pollutants are known to cause asthma attacks, cancer, and even premature death. Some airborne pollutants from fracked gas wells, like volatile organic compounds, can react with sunlight to create smog. Loopholes The Energy Policy Act of 2005 exempted hydraulic fracturing from the restrictions and standards of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). It created the â€Å"Halliburton Loophole† which prohibited the EPA from regulating the injection of fracking fluids under the SDWA except in cases where diesel is used. Since the exact chemicals used in fracking are often considered proprietary by the industry so it is difficult to ascertain when or if diesel is used in a fracking operation. Some companies have chosen to disclose the chemicals they use on www. fracfocus. org. While this is an encouraging first step, it is entirely voluntary at this time on private land. The Department of the Interior has mandated that companies drilling on public and Indian lands will be required to disclose chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing operations. The new rules also set standards for proper construction of wells and wastewater disposal. These rules could serve as a model for state regulators. Some states such as Wyoming, Michigan, and Texas, have been proactive and required full public disclosure of fracking fluid chemical constituents. The other federal law that governs water is the Clean Water Act which authorizes the National Pollutant Discharge and Elimination System to provide permits to companies who dispose flowback into surface waters. Currently, flowback that is released back into surface water is not tested for volatile organic compounds which can cause cancer or birth defects in humans. The Clean Air Act allows the EPA to regulate industry emissions into the air to protect its quality and the stratospheric ozone layer. According to an April article in USA Today, the EPA released first-ever air pollution rules for â€Å"fracking† wells, requiring that drillers burn or capture the gas and its smog-producing compounds that are released when wells are first tapped. The rules went into effect in June of 2012 but have a two year transition period. During that time, drillers may burn off the gas and chemicals but will need to move towards capturing them (called â€Å"green completions†). EPA estimates that this will cut 95% of the smog-related chemicals that are released by fracking wells. Given the lack of a definitive link between fracking activities and public health risks, fracking was allowed to develop with minimal regulations for decades because it was not on the public radar. It has only been in the last few years that the practice has come under scrutiny due to the increased usage of fracking and the undeniable potentially harmful impacts of the practice. Therefore, until it can be proven that the danger to human health posed by the environmental impacts of the practice can be shown beyond a doubt, fracking is going to continue. However, there needs to be more regulation of the industry and monitoring of the impacts of the practice to ensure that it is done in a safe manner. . If this happens, the likelihood for policy favoring more vigorous regulation of hydraulic fracturing is greatly increased. However, if there continues to be ambiguity and questions raised by proponents of fracking the changes will likely be small and incremental on the subsystem level. The response by the industry and its political allies to the scientific studies of the health and environmental effects of fracking â€Å"has approached the issue in a manner similar to the tobacco industry that for many years rejected the link between smoking and cancer,† say Drs. Bamberger and Oswald. Not only do they call for â€Å"full disclosure and testing of air, water, soil, animals, and humans,† but point out that with lax oversight, â€Å"the gas drilling boom . . . will remain an uncontrolled health experiment on an enormous scale. † References Bibliography of Works Cited: http://earthjustice. org/our_work/campaigns/fracking-gone-wrong-finding-a-better-way? gclid=CJ-tqOHWr7gCFWFp7Aod9GAAFw http://geology. com/articles/hydraulic-fracturing/ http://lubbockonline. com/filed-online/2012-10-19/methane-found-drinking-across -us-brings-concern-lubbock community#. UeMaf6Uo5Ms http://psehealthyenergy. net/data/Bamberger_Oswald_NS22_in_press. pdf www. coalitiontoprotectnewyork. org http://www. counterpunch. org/2012/03/19/the-perils-of-fracking/ http://www. marcellusoutreachbutler. org/ http://www. provostumphrey. com/blog/2013/01/texas-man-finds-benzene-and-methane-in-his-drinking-water. shtml http://www. scribd. com/doc/97449702/100-Fracking-Victims http://stateimpact. npr. org/texas/2012/08/07/frackings-link-to-smog-worries-some-texas-cities/ http://www. propublica. org/special/hydraulic-fracturing-national http://frack. mixplex. com/content/scientific-study-links-flammable-drinking-water-fracking http://www. hydraulicfracturing. com/Pages/information. aspx http://www. epa. gov/hydraulicfracture/ http://www. usatoday. com/money/industries/energy/environment/story/2012-04-18/fracking-pollution-

Pollution and Environment Essay - We Must Find a Balance Between Man an

We Must Find a Balance Between Man and Nature "America's beauty is truly unmatched by anything I have seen!" I thought with excitement and ecstasy when I first witnessed the splendor of American landscape. The majestic forests and azure lakes have surpassed the stories I heard while growing up. However, a puzzling sight hampered my sense of admiration when I arrived in New Mexico. Though the steppe around me was untouched, "No Littering" and "Save the Earth" signs seemed to be everywhere. It puzzled me why so much effort was put into preserving a land already pristine. At the time, I knew only of the splendor of American landscape and felt that it was only natural for people to preserve the pervasive gem I had witnessed. Gradually, I conceived the ongoing battle to preserve the environment. On one side, concerned citizens strive for environmental restrictions on industries to produce a cleaner, less technological environment their descendants can enjoy. Their formidable adversaries, the economists, argue that these restrictions limit the nation's productivity, thus degrading the general prosperity. Having witnessed the effects of overpopulation and pollution in China, I concur with the need to safeguard the environment. Yet this movement to protect is flawed. Though many people push for restrictions on industries, they themselves do not truly understand what they protect. It seems that many citizens today mistake nature for a pure, untainted essence that humanity has not corrupted. Even worse, these people go through incredible lengths to seek its revitalizing touch when they lack an overall perception of nature. Though nature is not the quintessence that many believe, it is nonetheless valuable to humans. For me, nature ... ...apid growth in technology, many citizens are ignorant of what will and will not deteriorate the environment. It is urgent to increase the public awareness of facts so a delicate balance between human expansion and natural preservation can be established. Perhaps in the future, mankind will have a new home among the stars, and nature on Earth will finally be left to freely run its course. Works Cited Cronon, William. "The Trouble with Wilderness" The Norton Reader. Ed. Peterson Linda, John Breton, and Joan Hartman. 10th ed. New York: Norton, 2000. 651-654. Eichler, Barrett. Personal Interview. 17 Oct. 2002. Kentucky Coal Education. Coal Education Question and Answers Forum. 20 Oct. 2002. . Pollan, Michael. "The Idea of a Garden." Reading the Environment. Ed. Melissa Walker. New York: Norton, 1994. 191-201.

Net Neutrality Paper

Capitalism is an economic system characterized by private or corporate ownership of capital goods, by investments that are determined by private decision, and by prices, production, and the distribution of goods that are determined mainly by competition in a free market. (Merriam-Webster Online, 2010) The United States of America is considered a â€Å"free market†, in some cases. Internet Seen,'ice Providers own the tangible cables and pipes providing the service of connectivity to the internet. They are the bridge. They own the bridge. In a free market, they can regulate heir bridge how they see fit, within the parameters of the law.This same model is expressed by cell phone companies in the communication industry as well as cable companies in the television industry. Cellular phone companies own all the variables that make up their network. They then sell you service to connect to their network based off of their interpretation of what the market will allow. They dictate wha t you pay, how much usage you are allowed and what types of usages are allowed. Cable companies evolved in the same manner. Once a free entertainment source is now a billion dollar year industry marked with the footprints of capitalism.Cable companies put forth the ground work to make the cable experience what it is today. In return, they profit from their investments to do so. They also dictate what we pay and what types of usage we are allowed. These cable and cellular communication companies have thrived in our free market mentality but in the same instance have been regulated by government when it applies to the internet. In the same way they own the physical cables, the pipes underground, the satellites and the air space, they are providing the bridge.Without their bridges, the consumer cannot access the internet. In a free market society, we tell companies to manage their business according to what the market will allow. The market has allowed the cell phone industry to operat e without regulation. The cable companies have thrived without regulation under the allowance of the market. The internet is no different. Property is any physical or intangible entity that is owned or possessed by a person or jointly by a group of people. Property is synonymous with ownership.Ownership is the exclusive right to possess and dispose of what oh own. â€Å"When you pull out the government, you take out socialism, and when you remove the rights of ownership and place the benefits broadly on the least able to pay for them, you have communism. It isn't yet clear if socialism will work in the U. S. , and it is doubly doubtful that communism (aka â€Å"Net neutrality†) will ever work. † (Ender, 2010) In economic terms, calculability is the ability to exclude others from use of a good. Rivalry is when one person's use of a good diminishes another's ability to use that good.When you have a resource that doesn't have calculability but does display rivalry you hav e what is known as ‘Tragedy of the Commons† which is an overused, under maintained resource (aka â€Å"the free-rider problem†). In Africa arose the possibility of the elephant becoming extinct from humans killing them for their hides and tusks. Two countries decided to act against this problem, Kenya and Rhodesia. Kenya took the approach of placing a ban on elephant poaching while Rhodesia gave property owners Private Property Rights to the elephants with incentives for elephant maintenance.Jenny's elephant population decreased while Rhodesia increased dramatically. The conclusion of when property rights are given, ownership of property motivates protection and care for the property more efficiently than federal regulations. In economic terms the internet would be classified as an Clubbable resource. The classification of rival or non-rival is debatable due to bandwidth. However if we look at this example from the rival standpoint, it bears identical resemblance of the private goods industry.When property rights are given with incentives, the elephant will prosper. If ownership is revoked and regulations are implemented by government, we have Tragedy of the commons. Sip's currently don't have incentives to make broadband bandwidth accessible in all parts of our country due to lack of profitability. Therefore our elephant population (internet) will decrease. This is a simple example of how capitalism is a great model for economical success. It is the same model that has molded our country for over two centuries. Why the model is continually changing I do not know.The Internet is not public property. Telecommunications companies have spent billions Of dollars on network infrastructure all over the world. They did so in the hope of selling communications services to customers willing to pay for them. The government has no right to effectively nationalize Sip's by telling them how run their networks. Proponents of net neutrality love to invent hypothetical scenarios of ways companies could abuse customers. It is true that a free society gives people the freedom to be stupid, wrong, and even malicious.The great thing about capitalism is that it also gives people the freedom to decide whom they want to do business with. A socialized Internet takes away that freedom and turns it over to politicians and lobbyists. Why do â€Å"net neutrality' advocates ridicule politicians for impairing the Internet to a â€Å"series of tubes,† and then trust them to regulate it? (vessels, 2007) The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has the ability to regulate wireless network providers by reclassifying them as Title II common carrier services, essentially equating them with cable and phone companies.That type of regulation would allow the FCC to impose traffic equality laws on all carriers, where under Washman's proposal wireless providers would have been exempt. Verizon, AT and wireless association ACTA have opposed the PC's m easures, while Google, Faceable and Keep, among various public interest groups strongly supported them. (Prism, 2010) Phone and cable companies have argued that increased regulation of Internet practices could have a detrimental effect on the industry. They argue that tough regulations could deter network investments and hinder the expansion of broadband infrastructure.The free-speech objection to net neutrality has also gained some ground recently. The National Cable & Telecommunications Association (NCAA) and AT&T began citing First Amendment objections to net neutrality in public discussions and in filings with the FCC this year. The free-speech argument states that, by interfering with how phone and cable companies deliver Internet traffic the government would be manipulating the free-speech rights of providers such as AT&T, Verizon and Compass. Jerome, 201 0) The Federal Communications Commission first established rules in 1 965 for cable systems which received signals by micro wave antennas. In March 1 966, the Commission established rules for all cable systems (whether or not served by microwave). The Supreme Court affirmed the Commission's jurisdiction over cable in United States v. Southwestern Cable Co. , 392 US. 157 (1968). The Court ruled that â€Å"the Commission has reasonably concluded that regulatory authority over CATV is imperative if it is to perform with appropriate effectiveness certain of its responsibilities. The Court found the Commission needed authority over cable systems to assure the preservation of local broadcast service and to effect an equitable distribution of broadcast services among the various regions of the country. In March 1 972, new rules regarding cable television became effective. These rules required cable television operators to obtain a certificate Of compliance from the Commission prior to operating a cable elevation system or adding a television broadcast signal.The rules applicable to cable operators fell into se veral broad subject areas franchise standards, signal carriage, network program non-duplication and syndicated program exclusivity, non-broadcast or cable casting services, cross-ownership, equal employment opportunity, and technical standards. Cable television operators who originated programming were subject to equal time, Fairness Doctrine, sponsorship identification and other provisions similar to rules applicable to broadcasters.Cable operators were also required to maintain certain records ND to file annual reports with the Commission concerning general statistics, employment and finances. In succeeding years, the Commission modified or eliminated many of the rules. Among the more significant actions, the Commission deleted most of the franchise standards in 1 977, substituted a registration process for the certificate of compliance application process in 1978, and eliminated the distant signal carriage restrictions and syndicated program exclusivity rules in 1980.In 1 983, th e Commission deleted its requirement that cable operators file financial information. In addition, court actions led to the deletion of the pay cable programming rules in 1977. In October 1 984, the U. S. Congress amended the Communications Act of 1 934 by adopting the Cable Communications policy Act of 1984. The 1 984 Cable Act established policies in the areas of ownership, channel usage, franchise provisions and renewals, subscriber rates and privacy, obscenity and lockers, unauthorized reception of services, equal employment opportunity, and pole attachments.The new law also defined jurisdictional boundaries among federal, state and local authorities for regulating cable elevation systems. Following the 1984 Cable Act, the number of households subscribing to cable television systems increased, as did the channel capacity of many cable systems. However, competition among distributors of cable services did not increase, and, in many communities, the rates for cable services far ou tpaced inflation. Responding to these problems, Congress enacted the Cable Television Consumer protection and Competition Act of 1992.The 1 992 Cable Act mandated a number of changes in the manner in which cable television is regulated. In adopting the 1 992 Cable Act, Congress dated that it wanted to promote the availability of diverse views and information, to rely on the marketplace to the maximum extent possible to achieve that availability, to ensure cable operators continue to expand their capacity and program offerings, to ensure cable operators do not have undue market power, and to ensure consumer interests are protected in the receipt of cable service.The Commission has adopted regulations to implement these goals. In adopting the Telecommunications Act of 1996, Congress noted that it wanted to provide a pro-competitive, De-regulatory national policy ramekin designed to accelerate rapidly private sector deployment of advanced telecommunications and information technologies and services to all Americans by opening all telecommunications markets to competition. The Commission has adopted regulations to implement the requirements of the 1996 Act and the intent of Congress. General Cable Television Industry and Regulation Information Fact Sheet, 2000) In the end life contains complex decision making decisions that come from those with opposing opinions. If we take positive economic results from the past and try to replicate them today, it might begin with clear and concise repertory rights pertaining to the internet. Let the free and open market drive competition to fuel creativity and innovation.

The Death Of The Native American Population - 1470 Words

Suicide in the Native American Population of the Northeastern United States While the Native American population encounters many health disparities; of growing concern, is the rates of suicide among these communities. The U.S. National Library of Medicine defines health disparities as â€Å"the variation in rates of disease occurrence and disabilities between socioeconomic and /or geographically defined population groups†. When looking at the Native American population of the northeastern United States, there are many factors that contribute to these alarming numbers. These include gun availability, rural locations of communities and reservations, privacy of Native people, distrust of outside help, alcoholism, depression, lack of resources, and acculturation stress. Many of these factors are a way of life for the Native American population. Guns are in most homes and used for hunting and sport. The rural locations are a way of being surrounded by all that is living and the refore, well-being of the people. Alcohol abuse is a learned and shared behavior among many families and throughout the generations. The high rates of depression are often self- medicated and contribute to the substance abuse issues already abundant within the community. It is a difficult situation to realize the very culture of a people may be the conduit to the problems they encounter. This can make the health care provider’s jobs even more difficult. As Paquin (2011) explained, â€Å"When nurses focusShow MoreRelatedThe United States And The Universal Declaration Of Human Rights Essay1421 Words   |  6 Pagescompared to the rest of the nation s population. Natives have been cast into a low spot on the social chain ever since whites came from Europe and it still shows today but in different forms. American Indians/Alaska Natives face major disparities in both mental and physical health across the country. 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